boisei. … The Bills, at 9-3, do have a route to do just that this [78] During the Pleistocene, there seems to have been coastal and montane forests in Eastern Africa. [21] The molars are bunodont, featuring low and rounded cusps. [79], The Cradle of Humankind, the only area P. robustus is known from, was mainly dominated by the springbok Antidorcas recki, but other antelope, giraffes, and elephants were also seemingly abundant megafauna. [54] The largest known Paranthropus individual was estimated at 54 kg (119 lb). They were preyed upon by the large carnivores of the time, specifically crocodiles, leopards, sabertoothed cats, and hyaenas. [3] Following this, it was debated if P. boisei was simply an East African variant of P. robustus until 1967 when South African palaeoanthropologist Phillip V. Tobias gave a far more detailed description of OH 5 in a monograph (edited by Louis). Paranthropus boisei is a species of australopithecine from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa about 2.3 to 1.34 or 1 million years ago. However, remains were not firmly dated, and it was debated if there were indeed multiple hominin lineages or if there was only 1 leading to humans. Average weight and height are estimated to be 40 kg (88 lb) at 132 cm (4 ft) for P. robustus males, 50 kg (110 lb) at 137 cm (4 ft 6 in) for P. boisei males, 32 kg (71 lb) at 110 cm (3 ft 7 in) for P. robustus females, and 34 kg (75 lb) at 124 cm (4 ft 1 in) for P. boisei females. However, it is difficult to predict with accuracy the true dimensions of living males and females due to the lack of definitive P. boisei skeletal remains, save for the presumed male OH 80. They were bipeds. [6] The discovery of the Peninj Mandible made the Leakey's reclassify their species as Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus) boisei in 1964,[7] but in 1967, South African palaeoanthropologist Phillip V. Tobias subsumed it into Australopithecus as A. boisei. [56], The East African P. boisei, on the other hand, seems to have been largely herbivorous and fed on C4 plants. 47 Likes, 1 Comments - University of Central Arkansas (@ucabears) on Instagram: “Your gift provides UCA students with scholarships, programs, invaluable learning opportunities and…” Genul Homo a evoluat și s-a separat de alte hominine din Africa acum câteva milioane de ani, după ce clada umană s-a despărțit de linia cimpanzeilor. They noted that, though it shares many similarities with Paranthropus, it may not have been closely related because it lacked enlarged molars which characterize the genus. Among the notable specimens found include the well preserved skull KNM-ER 406 from Koobi Fora in 1970. [12], In 1954, Robinson suggested that the heavily built skull of Paranthropus (at the time only including P. robustus) was indicative of a specialist diet specifically adapted for processing a narrow band of foods. Paranthropus is a genus of extinct hominin which contains two widely accepted species: P. robustus and P. boisei. [45] Australopithecines and early Homo likely preferred cooler conditions than later Homo, as there are no australopithecine sites that were below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation at the time of deposition. aethiopicus. However, as more specimens were found, the combination Paranthropus boisei became more popular. [49] Other likely Oldowan predators of great apes include the hunting hyaena Chasmaporthetes nitidula, the sabertoothed cats Dinofelis and Megantereon,[50] and the crocodile Crocodylus anthropophagus. Further, the size of the sagittal crest (and the gluteus muscles) in male western lowland gorillas has been correlated with reproductive success. [38], Burnt bones were also associated with the inhabitants of Swartkrans, which could indicate some of the earliest fire usage. [6]:108–109 In 1997, the first specimen with both the skull and jawbone (and also one of the largest specimens), KGA10-525, was discovered in Konso. [16] The youngest record of P. boisei comes Olduvai Gorge (OH 80) about 1.34 mya;[10] however, due a large gap in the hominin fossil record, P. boisei may have persisted until 1 mya. However, they likely preferred soft food over tough and hard food. [38], Bone tools dating between 2.3 and 0.6 mya have been found in abundance in Swartkrans,[64] Kromdraai, and Drimolen Caves, and are often associated with P. robustus. However, like gorillas, Paranthropus likely preferred soft foods, but would consume tough or hard food during leaner times, and the powerful jaws were used only in the latter situation. Carbon isotope analyses report a diet of predominantly C4 plants, such as low quality and abrasive grasses and sedges. [46], Paranthropus seems to have had notably high rates of pitting enamel hypoplasia (PEH), where tooth enamel formation is spotty instead of mostly uniform. [42], Australopithecines are generally considered to have had a faster, apelike growth rate than modern humans largely due to dental development trends. In order for cavity-creating bacteria to reach this area, the individual would have had to have also presented either alveolar resportion, which is commonly associated with gum disease; or super-eruption of teeth which occurs when teeth become worn down and have to erupt a bit more in order to maintain a proper bite, and this exposed the root. Alternatively, by multiplying the density of either bovids, elephants, or hippos by the percentage of hominin remains out of total mammal remains found at the formation, Boaz estimated a density of 0.001–2.58 individuals per square kilometre. [27], The wide range of size variation in skull specimens seems to indicate a great degree of sexual dimorphism with males being notably bigger than females. In 1981, Martin applied equations formulated by ecologists Alton S. Harestad and Fred L. Bunnel in 1979 to estimate the home range and population density of large mammals based on weight and diet, and, using a weight of 52.4 kg (116 lb), he got: 130 ha (320 acres) and 0.769 individuals per square kilometre if herbivorous; 1,295 ha (3,200 acres) and 0.077 individuals if omnivorous; and 287,819 ha (711,220 acres) and 0.0004 individuals if carnivorous. [10] The ambiguously attributed, presumed female femur KNM-ER 1500 is estimated to have been of an individual about 124 cm (4 ft 1 in) tall[29] which would be consistent with the argument of sexual dimorphism,[10] but if the specimen does indeed belong to P. boisei, it would show a limb anatomy quite similar to that of the contemporary H. [27] Paranthropus had spread into South Africa by 2 mya with the earliest P. robustus remains. [29] The youngest record of P. boisei comes from Konso, Ethiopia about 1.4 mya, however there are no East African sites dated between 1.4 and 1 mya, so it may have persisted until 1 mya. In contrast, the P. robustus hand is not consistent with climbing. They were possibly polygamous and patrilocal, but there are no modern analogues for australopithecine societies. [73], However, if P. robustus preferred a savanna habitat, a multi-male society would have been more productive to better defend the troop from predators in the more exposed environment, much like savanna baboons. Martin "Farmer" Burns was the next superstar wrestler, winning the championship in 1895 and never losing a fall from 1890-1893. [5], The first identified jawbone, Peninj 1, was discovered Lake Natron just north of Olduvai Gorge in 1964. Because of this, the predominant model of Paranthropus extinction for the latter half of the 20th century was that it was unable to adapt to the volatile climate of the Pleistocene, unlike the much more adaptable Homo. "[2] OH 80 seems to have been eaten by a big cat. The holotype specimen, OH 5, was discovered by palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey in 1959, and described by her husband Louis a month later. [10] For comparison, modern human men and women in the year 1900 averaged 163 cm (5 ft 4 in) and 152.7 cm (5 ft), respectively. boisei. The first remains—Olduvai Hominin (OH) 3, a baby canine and large molar tooth—were unearthed in 1955 in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. [10] The hand of KNM-ER 47000 shows Australopithecus-like anatomy lacking the third metacarpal styloid process (which allows the hand to lock into the wrist to exert more pressure), a weak thumb compared to modern humans, and curved phalanges (finger bones) which are typically interpreted as adaptations for climbing. [45], Unlike P. robustus, the forearms of P. boisei were heavily built, which might suggest habitual suspensory behaviour as in orangutans and gibbons. [81] Other likely Olduvan predators of great apes include the hunting hyaena Chasmaporthetes nitidula, and the sabertoothed cats Dinofelis and Megantereon. [53] P. robustus sites are oddly dominated by small adults, which could be explained as heightened predation or mortality of the larger males of a group. [1] Synonymising Paranthropus with Australopithecus was first suggested by anthropologists Sherwood Washburn and Bruce D. Patterson in 1951, who recommended limiting hominin genera to only Australopithecus and Homo. It likely also consumed seeds[62][63] and possibly tubers or termites. [65] The teeth of Paranthropus, H. habilis, and H. erectus are all known from various overlapping beds in East Africa, such as at Olduvai Gorge[77] and the Turkana Basin. [24] Regarding the dural venous sinuses, in 1983, American neuroanthropologist Dean Falk and anthropologist Glenn Conroy suggested that, unlike A. africanus or modern humans, all Paranthropus (and A. afarensis) had expanded occipital and marginal (around the foramen magnum) sinuses, completely supplanting the transverse and sigmoid sinuses. [3], In 1948, at Swartkrans Cave, in about the same vicinity as Kromdraai, Broom and South African palaeontologist John Talbot Robinson described P. crassidens based on a subadult jaw, SK 6. [9][10][11] P. boisei also has a notably wide range of variation in skull anatomy, but these features likely have no taxonomic bearing. In P. robustus, about 47% of baby teeth and 14% of adult teeth were affected, in comparison to about 6.7% and 4.3% respectively in any other tested hominin species. The tips of the mesial cusps of the 1st molar (on the side closest to the premolar) of KNM-ER 1820 were at about the same level as the cervix (where the enamel meets the cementum) of its non-permanent 2nd premolar. [30][31][26] However, the classifications of Australopithecus species is problematic. [26] The oldest P. boisei remains date to about 2.3 mya from Malema, Malawi. [35] In 2013, a 1.34 Ma male P. boisei partial skeleton was estimated to be at least 156 cm (5 ft 1 in) and 50 kg (110 lb). Joseph Y. Halpern, Evan Piermont Pages 2851-2858 | PDF. [43], P. boisei remains have been found predominantly in what were wet, wooded environments, such as wetlands along lakes and rivers, wooded or arid shrublands, and semiarid woodlands,[34] with the exception of the savanna-dominated Malawian Chiwondo Beds. Evan "Strangler" Lewis was the first superstar professional wrestler, claiming the championship in 1883 with his famous stranglehold. Various other authors were still unsure until more complete remains were found. [12], In 1968, French palaeontologists Camille Arambourg and Yves Coppens described "Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus" based on a toothless mandible from the Shungura Formation, Ethiopia (Omo 18). [1] "Paranthropus" derives from Ancient Greek παρα para beside or alongside; and άνθρωπος ánthropos man. The argument rests upon whether the genus is monophyletic—is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants—and the argument against monophyly (that the genus is paraphyletic) says that P. robustus and P. boisei evolved similar gorilla-like heads independently of each other by coincidence (convergent evolution), as chewing adaptations in hominins evolve very rapidly and multiple times at various points in the family tree (homoplasy). [69][70], Given the marked anatomical and physical differences with modern great apes, there may be no modern analogue for australopithecine societies, so comparisons drawn with modern primates will not be entirely accurate. Though Homo is also known from these caves, their remains are comparatively scarce to Paranthropus, making Homo-attribution unlikely. [59][60], Paranthropus were generalist feeders, but diet seems to have ranged dramatically with location. Robust australopithecines are characterised by heavily built skulls capable of producing high stresses and bite forces, and some of the largest molars with the thickest enamel of any known ape. [53][69], P. boisei, known from the Great Rift Valley, may have typically inhabited wetlands along lakes and rivers, wooded or arid shrublands, and semiarid woodlands,[65] though their presence in the savanna-dominated Malawian Chiwondo Beds implies they could tolerate a range of habitats. [66], South African Paranthropus appear to have outlasted their East African counterparts. However, the validity of Paranthropus is contested, and it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with Australopithecus. [22] In face of calls for subsumation, Leakey[5] and Robinson[23] continued defending its validity. [28][29][16], It is sometimes suggested that Paranthropus and Homo are sister taxa, both evolving from Australopithecus. [57] In P. boisei, thick enamel was more likely used to resist abrasive gritty particles rather than to minimize chipping while eating hard foods. [68] However, these bones were found in Member 3, where Paranthropus remains are rarer than H. erectus, and it is also possible the bones were burned in a wildfire and washed into the cave as it is known the bones were not burned onsite. ", "Relevance of the eastern African coastal forest for early hominin biogeography", 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199707)103:3<375::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-P, "Les veines méningées moyennes des Australopithèques", "Dental Microwear and Diet of the Plio-Pleistocene Hominin, "Diet and teeth: Dietary hypotheses and human evolution", "Baboon Feeding Ecology Informs the Dietary Niche of, "Bipedality and hair loss in human evolution revisited: The impact of altitude and activity scheduling", "Sagittal crest formation in great apes and gibbons", "Hominin palaeoecology in late Pliocene Malawi: first insights from isotopes (, "The origins of stone tool technology in Africa: a historical perspective", "A New Horned Crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paranthropus_boisei&oldid=1000984763, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 18:11. Feeding on these, P. boisei may have been able to meet its daily caloric requirements of approximately 9700 kJ after about 6 hours of foraging. The presumed male OH 80 may have been 156 cm (5 ft 1 in) tall and 50 kg (110 lb) in weight (assuming improbable humanlike proportions), and the presumed female KNM-ER 1500 124 cm (4 ft 1 in) tall (though its species designation is unclear). However, it is argued that Paranthropus is an invalid grouping and synonymous with Australopithecus, so the species is also often classified as Australopithecus boisei. africanus. Nonetheless, the intertrochanteric line is much more defined in OH 80, the gluteal tuberosity is more towards the midline of the femur, and the mid-shaft in side-view is straighter, which likely reflect some difference in load-bearing capabilities of the leg.
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